The Ice Flow

By Red Sox Steve

About 5,000 years before the recorded birth of Christ, descendants of the Neolithic era lived in tribal societies in what we now know as Portugal and Spain. Some historians believe that because their language bears no resemblance to the Indo-European languages that spread across Europe, they did not emigrate from other regions. These people, later believed to be from the Kingdom of Iberia on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, were knowledgeable in bronze metalworking and agricultural processes, and eventually moved away from isolated groups and into more urbanized settings.

Because this area was rich in bronze, tin, silver and copper, seagoing societies were present on the peninsula as of the 14th century BCE - Phoenicians and later Greeks established colonies in the southeastern Iberian region. Some historians say that by 600 BCE, Celtic people came across the Pyrenees. As they occupied an ever larger portion of the Iberian peninsula, they mixed with and dislocated the Iberians, resulting in a culture that can be referred to as Celtiberia. Originally, the Greeks gave the peninsular Iberians their name; however as Celtiberian culture took hold, the term Iberian was applied to any culture south of the Pyrenees that managed to retain its original non-Celtic identity.

After 600 BCE, the Carthaginians had taken over Phoenician trade routes, and later those of the Greeks. Because the Carthaginians were able to acquire the ports of southern Spain, the Greeks were diverted to the southern mouth of the Rhone River, and the port city of Massalia (today, Marseille). This trajectory put the Greeks, and then the Romans, on a course to interact with the Celtic tribes in France and Germany, thus leading to the creation of ties between European and Mediterranean societies that were influential for centuries thereafter.

The subsequent centuries saw Carthage and Rome enter into two different eras of decades long conflict, known as the First and Second Punic Wars. At their completion, Carthage had ceded all its territory on the Iberian peninsula to Rome. In 197 BCE, Rome divided Spain into two provinces, known as Hispania Citerior ("Near Spain") and Hispania Ulterior ("Far Spain"). Rome sought the precious metals that had motivated its predecessors in the region, and later found that the area had fertile farmlands, and were thus able to produce olives, wine, and grain with the assistance of over 50,000 slave laborers. Because Rome was highly encouraged by these rewards, Roman legions fought heavily against existing tribes in order to occupy this region. From the Ebro valley westward, the Romans fought against the Celtiberians, Iberians, and Lusitanis. Although history records a major defeat of the tribal peoples in 133 BC, Rome did not rule the entire Iberian peninsula until decades later.

By 411 CE, Roman rule was supplanted by tribes moving into the Iberian peninsula from the north - the Vandals and Suebi (both Germanic) occupied Spain. Just a few years later, the Visigoths (Germanic) occupied parts of Gaul and Spain, driving out the Vandals. Although Roman authority had been removed, Roman influence remained in Spain and dominated the era of Visigothic rule. By the latter half of the fifth century, it was under a Visigothic king, Euric, that the they were at the height of their power. Not only were they recognized by the Roman emperor as being in control of Gaul and Spain, but even the Persians sought to make peace with Euric.

After Euric passed away, his son Alaric II sought to retain a similar amount of influence, but because of his support for Arianism, was opposed by the Roman Catholic church, acting through Frankish king Clovis I. In the early 6th century, Clovis confronted the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouille, near Poitiers, France. Alaric was killed and the Visigoths were defeated. They moved their capital to Toledo, while any who remained in Gaul were converted from Arianism to Roman Catholicism.

By the second half of the 6th century, the Visigothic kingdom had withstood threats from the Franks, Byzantines and the Basques. However, when Visigothic king Leovigild came to power in 569, he was able to unite the Visigoths and Iberians, and defeat the Germanic Suebi. However, Aryan and Roman Catholic tensions remained at the fore - Leovigild's son, Hermenigild, married a Catholic and renounced Arianism. As a result, the king had his son executed, and Hermenigild was later canonized by the Catholic Church. Leovigild's other son, Recared also converted to Catholicism and was able to unite the kingdom. As the church became more dominant over the course of the 7th century, Visigothic power grew weaker and weaker. The final blow to Visigothic rule was rendered quickly after King Roderic took power in 710. The invading Moors from the Middle East and Africa defeated his army in the Battle of Rio Barbate in 711, and during the Battle of Laguna de Janda, it is thought that Roderick was killed. The invading Moors had defeated the Visigoths and claimed much of Spain for Islam.

In claiming much of the Iberian peninsula for Islam, the Moors were carrying forward a journey which has its origins far to the east, starting in the previous century. In 570, in Mecca (Saudi Arabia), a boy named Mohammed was born and later orphaned. He was raised by other family members and worked as a merchant and a shepherd. As he grew older, he became more religious and less contented with his life in Mecca. He retreated from life in Mecca to surrounding caves, and began to meditate. By 610, he received his first revelations from Allah, in the Islamic month of Ramadan. By another revelation, he traveled on a winged animal to Jerusalem, the third holy city of Islam (after Mecca and Medina). He put down these revelations and other passages in a Muslim holy book called the Qur'an. The religion he had founded before he died in 632 was known as Islam, meaning "submission to God."

The Moorish conquest of the Iberian peninsula was carried out by general Tarik ibn Ziyad. Tarik, coming across the Strait of Gibraltar with 7,000 men, arrived on the peninsula in May 711. By July, they had defeated Roderick at the Battle of Guadalete - he then captured the Visigothic capital, Toledo. By 719, as a result of further progress, the Moors had been able to place more than half the peninsula under their rule. Although the Moors attempted to cross the Pyrenees into Frankish territory, they were repelled, and remained on the peninsula.

The area the Moors controlled was known as al-Andalus ("Islamic Spain"), and was considered part of the Province of North Africa. Tensions around 750 between controlling Muslim dynasties in Syria pushed the Umayyad dynasty out of Syria, and into Spain. By 756, Abd ar-Rahman, a member of the Umayyad dynasty was able to come to power in Spain - he made himself governor of Cordoba, an independent emirate of Islamic Spain. In 929, his descendant Abd ar-Rahman III an-Nasir became a caliphate of Cordoba, growing it into one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean region.

By the beginning of the 9th century, Alfonso III, king of the northern Spanish kingdom of Asturias, had conquered some Christian and Muslim lands on the peninsula; at the same time the Frankish kingdom and other Christian kingdoms on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees had emerged. Simultaneously during this period, the Moorish cities on the Iberian peninsula became independent of the Umayyad dynasty - the caliph was no longer in control.

By 1085, Alfonso VI took Toledo from the Moors, pronouncing it the capital of the kingdom of Castile. As a result, Muslim leaders in Spain sought the assistance of the military leader Yusuf ibn Tashuvin and the Almoravids, a North African muslim dynasty. They were able to recapture Muslim kingdoms and successfully block the Christian advance, naming Seville the new regional capital. By 1097, however, Alfonso VI conquered the northern section of Portugal and made it a Castilian county. Christianity and the non-Islamic kingdoms of Spain were expanding, while at the same time the influence of Islam was declining.

Historians call the period just after Muslims controlled nearly the entire peninsula in 718 to the time the Moors were finally driven from Granada in 1492 the Reconquista. During this period, there were conflicts between the Moors, ruling from Toledo and then Seville, and other regional kings. It is also during this time that Portugal was able to assert itself as an independent kingdom.

Alfonso VI gave Portugal to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy in 1097, ruling as the count of Portugal under the kingdom of Asturias until his death in 1112. After Henry's death, his son Alfonso I ruled the region as a count. During his countship, he was able to bring the northern counties of Portucale and Coimbra under his authority, and Braga, a city in the region, became a Catholic center on the Iberian peninsula. The lords ruling all three sought to assert Portugal's independence, and this became so in 1139, with Alfonso I becoming the first king of an independent Portugal after defeating the Moors in southern part of the country.

During the remaining part of his rule, Alfonso I was able to conquer Lisbon, and push the Portuguese border further south. By the time Alfonso III came to power in 1248, the monarchy and the Christians were able to push the Moors entirely off the Portuguese portion of the peninsula, taking Algarve, the southernmost region for Portugal. Although the Reconquista was to continue for over two centuries, Portugal had expelled the Moors, having become a peninsular center for feudalism and Christianity in the process.

By time the Moors were driven from Portugal, the nation had little involvement in the remaining portion of the Reconquista. Furthermore, it had established nearly the entire border of the nation that exists today. As the 13th century continued, the monarchy worked to establish its own authority over the church and nobility. A legislative system had been instituted as well - the Cortes (a representative assembly) was made up of commoners and worked with kings to achieve a balanced government. Although there were alliances through marriage between Portugal and Castile during the 14th century, Castilian influence was strongly resisted by the Portuguese. It was also during the 14th century that the Portuguese would enter into what is currently the world's oldest alliance - in 1373, the English and Portuguese signed the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance (also known as the Treaty of Windsor, agreed to in 1386). Prior to this, the English had assisted the Portuguese by sending crusaders to assist in the defeat of the Moors in Lisbon in the 12th century, and this agreement would later draw the English into conflicts in assistance of the Portuguese.

For reasons ranging from the amount of coastline it possessed to the potential for further conflict with different Spanish kingdoms, the Portuguese began to pursue maritime economic relationships. As is customary with alliances formed during the Middle Ages, it was marriage between King John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of the English duke of Lancaster, John of Gaunt that buttressed the agreement. Their son, Prince Henry of Portugal, later came to be known as Prince Henry, the Navigator. Early in the 15th century, Henry became both involved in the conflict to repel the Moors from northern Africa and aware of the riches that lay on that continent. In 1420, he was appointed to the Order of Christ and gained access to the church's wealth in order to wage war against the Moors in Africa. For much of the rest of his life, Henry would continue to enhance the gold trade with Western Africa, stop pirates from attacking the Portuguese coast and attempt to locate a legendary Christian kingdom that lay somewhere in the Far East.

Subsequent to the end of the Reconquista, the Portuguese became aware that the Spanish monarchy was seeking another trade route to India, and was able to become a party to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1493. Deliberated over by Pope Alexander VI, the agreement drew an imaginary line between the Americas and the west coast of Africa in an attempt to avoid conflict between Spain and Portugal. Essentially, the Spanish were able to obtain the Americas, and Portugal to Africa. Later, this treaty was renegotiated because when it was signed, there was little understanding of the size of South America; Portugal was able to settle Brazil as a result.

During the 16th century because of its seagoing focus, Portugal could claim parts of South America, India, Timor, Taiwan, Africa, Malaysia, Japan and China as being under its dominion, and was trading everything from metals to slaves across this empire.

In 1580, Portuguese King Sebastian died in battle in Morocco. Because he had no natural heir, the Spanish House of Habsburg claimed personal union with Portugal, ruling it for 60 years. The ensuing conflict to restore the sovereignty of Portugal is known as the Portuguese Restoration War. In 1640, the grandson of the claimant to the throne in 1580, John IV, Duke of Braganza, was recognized as King of Portugal. This began the ruling dynasty known as the House of Braganza, which would remain in power until the 20th century. John IV died in 1656, and by 1657, Spain had again invaded Portugal. Because King John had secured alliances with other European powers before his death, by 1668, England's Charles II was able to get both sides to agree to the Treaty of Lisbon, returning any territory claimed as a result of the conflict.

Because of the ties that Portugal had sought to construct, they were drawn into the War of Spanish Succession in the early part of the 18th century. The British, Dutch, Austrians, Savoys (Spain), and Prussians were all opposed to the combining of the Spanish and French monarchies under the House of Bourbon. However, Portugal also benefited greatly from its remaining colonial territories during this period as well. Because of the diamond and gold discoveries in Brazil, Portuguese King John V (1706-1750) was able to undertake extravagant construction projects, using Versailles and Louis XIV as examples in how to spend material wealth.

King John's successor, however, ushered in a new era of governance over Portugal and its citizens. In 1750, Joseph I assumed the throne in Portugal, and installed Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, later known as Pombal, to manage the kingdom (equivalent to a prime minister today). Informed by his experience as an ambassador to England, when Pombal became head of government, he instituted a number of reforms which served to eliminate policies oriented around racial and religious discrimination, and abolished slavery in Portugal as well as Portuguese colonies in India. Although, prior to his rule, the Portuguese economy was unimpressive, it was stable because of its colonial relationship with Brazil and its economic treaty with England.

Pombal instituted a number of economic reforms designed to increase Portugal's self-sufficiency, and imposed a number of reforms on Portugal's tax system. He created a number of companies and guilds in order to regulate every commercial activity. He instituted new rules to ensure the quality of the nation's port (wine) production, being the first in Europe to attempt to do so. He is also created with beginning the nation's secular public primary and secondary school system, vocational training, and creating hundreds of new teaching posts in mathematics and natural sciences at the University of Coimbra; subsequently he introduced new taxes to pay for these reforms. During the 1760s, he recognized the Jesuit hold over educational institutions as being a negative and began to advocate for the order's expulsion from Portugal. Partly due to his efforts, in 1773 Pope Clement XIV order the dissolution of the Societas Jesu.

By 1792, John V, grandson of Joseph I, had taken over as monarch. John aligned himself against the French and Spanish, and with the British in resisting the spread of the French revolution. Before the end of the 18th century, Spain attacked Portugal as a result of Portuguese refusal to stop trading with the British. This brief conflict, called the War of the Oranges, ended with the signing of the Treaty of Badajoz on June 6, 1801, forcing Portugal to shut its ports to British trade, giving France special trading status, giving Olivenza to Spain and part of Brazil to France. Britain later defeated a Franco-Spanish alliance, resulting in a restoration of amicable relations between Portugal and Britain. Napoleon continued to pressure Portugal - in 1807, he invaded Portugal, and a year later, attacked his former ally, Spain, in order to gain control of the Iberian Peninsula. By 1811, the British had come to the assistance of Portugal and helped to end the so-called Peninsular Wars by forcing French forces back to France while Napoleon was occupied in Austria.

Portuguese colonial influence in many parts of the world was waning, as evidenced by the 1822 independence of Brazil, as well as numerous sites in Asia. Africa, however, was where Portugal was able to expand its possessions. It increased its holdings to eventually include Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique. Because Portugal had focused its efforts on Africa, especially southern Africa, Portuguese explorers were among the first Europeans to cross Africa, west to east. In 1877, Portugal began a project to connect all its territories in the region, calling it the Pink Map. The British, however, had designs of their own on Africa, seeking to form a contiguous territory from Cape Town to Cairo. The British plan was called the British Ultimatum of 1890 and King Carlos I of Portugal agreed to abide by it. On August 20, 1890 the Treaty of London was signed between Portugal and the UK, outlining the territory of Angola and Mozambique. 10 days later, the Treaty was presented to the Portuguese parliament, ultimately leading to protests and the downfall of the government. Because the Portuguese parliament failed to ratify the treaty, a new one was negotiated and accepted by both governments later that year, however the King's reaction to it had implications of its own.

Pressure was applied to Charles' monarchy by a constituency who had no desire to be ruled by a king and wanted Portugal to become a republic. In 1906, Charles appointed João Franco as prime minister, giving Charles the freedom to live a lavish personal life at the expense of his people. On February 1, 1908, Charles and his son and heir to the throne Luis Felipe, were murdered in Lisbon. Luis Felipe's brother Manuel became king, and by 1910 was removed from power, ending an 800 year old monarchy. The Portuguese republic was born.

From the beginning of the First Portuguese Republic in 1911 until the beginning of a period of dictatorship called "Ditadura Nacional" (Portuguese for National Dictatorship) in 1926, the nation's affairs were poorly managed. According to some sources, they had 8 presidents and 38 prime ministers during this time. Furthermore, although they aligned with the victorious British and French in WWI, their military contribution was minimal. The political instability and the perception of disorder and chaos that was created would not keep the discontented military and its conservative political supporters at bay. What is known as the May 28 Revolution took place in 1926, and put in place a dictatorship that would last until 1974.

The "Ditadura Nacional" lasted from 1926 until 1933. During this period, a national trade union was dissolved, a policy of censorship was instituted, and political power became more accessible to military leaders. By 1933, to concentrate power even further, all trade unions were prohibited, a single political party ruled the government, censorship became more widespread and a new regime grew out of the old one: Estado Novo. The Estado Novo was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar, who had risen to power starting in 1928. Although he was fully in control of Portugal between the rise of Mussolini in Italy and Franco in Spain, Salazar was merely a Catholic Nationalist who believed in stability in government and economic growth, albeit at the expense of democracy.

When World War II began in September 1939, Portugal and Spain were already parties to a Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression ("Pacto Iberico"); Salazar, although he shared Hitler's right wing orientation, did not approve of what the Nazis were doing, and consequently was critical in preventing Spain's Franco from joining the Axis. Although both nations had declared neutrality, Spain often provided aid to Germany while Portugal fastidiously adhered to its agreement. Portugal continued to trade with both Allied and Axis powers through the end of the war, and only stopped any economic relations with Germany near the end of the conflict as a result of applied Allied pressure.

Although Salazar pursued a progressive stance domestically, continuing to construct roads and improve education, the economic relationship he sought to cultivate with Portugal's colonies was tantamount to feudalism. There were over 800,000 square miles of Portuguese colonies being ruled by a mother country of a mere 35,000 square miles. He sought to encourage settlement and investment in the colonies for the benefit of Portugal, however he was faced with an anti-colonial movement, especially in India and Africa. By the early 1960s, India took back Goa, while uprisings in Africa were the proverbial fork in the road for the Salazar administration: should they expend financial and military resources that they don't have in order to quell uprisings in Mozambique and Angola, defying much of the world's opinion in the process? Salazar did just that in 1964 with much of its African holdings, however he suffered a stroke and gave up office in 1968 dying 2 years later.

Portugal's self-identification as an "organic democracy" rather than a "civilian police dictatorship" put it in a precarious position even though it shifted to the winning side near the end of World War II. Although Portugal was not present when the UN was officially established, it became a member in 1955. Because of the presence of military bases on the Azores islands off its coast, it was, however, a founding member of NATO. Because it possessed the mineral resources that a devastated Europe needed to rebuild, it experienced economic growth throughout the postwar 1940s and 1950s. By the 1960s however, democratic ideals could not be restrained. During the 1962 "Academic Crisis", the Salazar government feared further economic liberalization and the increasing desire for democracy among students. With the support of the Portuguese Communist Party, the students responded to government crackdowns with massive demonstrations. Simultaneously, many young men feared involvement in the Portuguese Colonial War meant to retain its African colonies. As a result, over 2 million people left for more developed places like France, the USA, Germany, Switzerland, and the UK.

By the 1970s, Salazar's rule had ended, and Portugal, under the rule of Marcelo Caetano continued to pursue some of his predecessor's goals. While 1 of every 4 men had been conscripted to fight in the Portuguese Colonial War, nearly the entire Portuguese labor force was working in support of the combat forces. While Caetano lacked the support to deviate from Salazar's policies, he had no choice but to rely on military officials, working in Lisbon, for any decision or advice related to the conflict.

There was increasing disillusionment among junior officers due to the increasingly difficult circumstances they faced in Africa. Higher ranking field officers soon started to feel the war had no end in sight. Although the writings of the African revolutionary leaders were disseminated by Portuguese high command, many Portuguese soldiers soon started to share their enemies' perspectives. Back in Portugal a non-violent protest was planned by the military. On April 25, 1974, coded messages were disseminated through the radio, troops moved to government buildings to take charge of their operations, and high ranking officials were placed under arrest. Many soldiers posted at strategic locations in Lisbon placed flowers in their rifle barrels, symbolizing the fact that no shots had been fired to achieve their goal. What came to be known as the "Carnation Revolution" ended the oppressive dictatorship that had been suffocating Portugal.

Soon after Caetano was deposed, a power vacuum was created, and popular tension and turmoil dispersed throughout the country. Political parties of all stripes were legalized, and political prisoners were released, while political exiles returned to their country. Leaders of the provisional government promised elections for a constituent assembly within a year, the first in more than 50 years.

Later in 1974, there was turbulence at the governmental level, which increased during 1975. The MFA (Movimento das Forças Armadas, Armed Forces Movement), which had originally deposed Caetano had been able to remain in power. It used its ability to both nationalize banking, utilities and insurance companies as well as apply pressure to the larger political parties to recognize the MFA as a permanent supervisory party over this "guided" democracy. During the elections, the moderate leftists came in first, followed by the moderate rightists, with the extremists on both sides gaining 12 percent of the vote each.

Because of both persistent lawlessness and continual pressure by the MFA (now presenting itself as a national liberation movement), the centrist ruling parties were forced to resign in 1975. The following year, the MFA had renegotiated its relationship with the other political parties, and new elections were held in April. Lieutenant Colonel António Ramalho Eanes, who had earlier purged his party, the MFA, of all radical elements, won with 61.5% of the vote.

The representative legislature, known as the Constituent Assembly, wanted to create a new system of government, based on the French model. It called for an elected president, as well as a prime minister chosen by either the majority party or a coalition resulting from a democratic parliament. The parties managed to negotiate a constitutional agreement calling for socialism as a governmental goal, and retaining the military-oriented Revolutionary Council, in order to both guard the revolution's legacy and judge the constitutionality of any governmental legislation.

Starting with parliamentary elections in 1979, anti-democratic components of the government started to fade away. In 1982, the Revolutionary Council was abolished. The election of 1986 saw Mario Soares (Socialist Party), Portugal's first civilian president, come to power. By 1989, reforms were instituted which eliminated a constitutional requirement that parts of the economy remain nationalized. Moderate parties dominated the political sphere, increasing the stability of the democratic system. In 1986 the European Economic Community (now the European Union) accepted Portugal as a member, liberalizing trade and investment, spurring economic growth above the EU average in the 1990s.

From 1985-1995, Anibal Cavaco Silva of the center-right Social Democratic Party (PSD) was Prime Minister, and from 1986-1996, Mario Soares of the center-left Socialist Party (PS) was President. Starting in 1995, Antonio Guterres returned the PS to the prime ministership. During this period, Portugal continued to integrate into the EU, continuing to both privatize state assets and focus on social spending and investment. The PS was re-elected for a second four-year term in October 1999, although with the economy seriously deteriorating, the PS was defeated in local elections in 2001. Guterres resigned as prime minister and party leader, setting in motion a March 2002 general election.

Jose Socrates (PS), the current prime minister, has been in power since March 2005, under the presidency of Anibal Cavaco Silva (independent and formerly PSD). In February 2005, the PS was able to return to power, usurping the hold of the coalition PSD and Popular Party. It was also the first time that the PS had an absolute majority in parliament in its modern history. Portugal ran a budget deficit that was more than twice the limit allowed by EU treaty, necessitating tax increases and administrative reforms, causing widespread demonstration by public sector workers. Cavaco Silva, the first right-of-center president in Portugal's modern history, seeks to be more involved with governmental reforms than the constitution allows, due to the economic pressures Portugal faces.

Portugal took the EU presidency in July 2007, focusing on agreement on a new EU treaty, the Lisbon Agenda for growth and competitiveness. This agreement was signed by EU heads of government in December 2007, but because Ireland has rejected it, its future remains uncertain. The treaty cannot become effective until it has been approved by all 27 EU members. Ireland, which sees the agreement to streamline EU institutions as a threat to the sovereignty of EU nations, refuses to ratify it. As more and more nations do, however, Ireland will come under increased pressure.

Portugal began the slow process of modernizing its nation only after the military which deposed its dictator no longer had a role in the representative functions of the government. Today, although Portugal remains in a fiscal crisis and must make changes in order to fall in line with EU regulations, it has transformed into a stable democratic and peaceful nation. Because of its relatively small size, it has less influence than some of its neighbors, however, to someone who understands the history of this nation, that is nothing new. Although it was the earliest of its contemporaries to establish itself as a global empire, more recently it has used its neighboring countries as models of governance. Because the union of nations it belongs to, the European Union, is the most modernized form of collaborative international government in place today, it is in the right position to continue the trajectory of its own development into a nation willing to play a part in the 21st century.