The Ice Flow

By Red Sox Steve

When examining the history of European nations we've looked at so far, their post-Stone Age, pre-feudal histories are not necessarily simultaneous. The era when primitive farming and animal domestication started to displace one of stone tool making and hunter-gatherer societies is known as the Neolithic era. Neolithic practices were thought to originate on the West Bank of the Palestinian territories before spreading north to Asia Minor in approximately 9500 BCE. Turkey (formerly known as Asia Minor, or Anatolia) is home to the earliest recorded adoption of Neolithic practices in Europe starting in about 7000 BCE.

By 2400 BCE, Anatolia had shepherded in the Bronze Age, as it fell under the influence of the Early trans-Caucasian culture, centered around the southwestern Black Sea region. The Bronze Age, after a series of conquests of successively influential kingdoms in the region, finally gave way to the Iron Age and the Phrygian kingdom in the 12th century BCE. By the 7th century, the Phrygian kingdom of Asia Minor was conquered by the Cimmerians. The Cimmerians, originally from north of the Caucasus and Black Sea region, were equine-oriented, and were able to take the Phrygian capital of Gordium (modern Yassihüyük, in Turkey) in 696 BCE. According to legend, as the Cimmerians took Gordium, the final Phrygian king committed suicide. This king, famous to the Greeks partly because of his wealth and later written into Greek lore as having the ability to turn anything he touched into gold, was known as King Midas.

The next powerful kingdom to control western Anatolia was Lydia, starting in 687 BCE. Lydia was founded after the fall of the Hittite Empire of central Anatolia in the 13th century BCE. The Lydian kingdom in Anatolia was west of Phrygia, and the Lydians were ruled by three dynasties over their eight century existence. The first, the Atyad dynasty, ruled from approximately 1300 BCE to 1185 BCE, followed by the Heraclids (1186 - 687 BCE approx), who ruled over a period of Greek emergence on the Meditteranean. The third and final Lydian dynasty, the Mermnads, fought the powerful and intrusive Greeks as well as the persistent Cimmerians. Cimmerian militarism in the region led to the acquisition of Phrygia by Lydia. After the Lydians were able to put an end to Cimmerian attacks in 560 BCE, they became interested in lands beyond Anatolia. The final Lydian king, Croesus, attacked the Persian empire around the middle of the 6th century BCE, and in 546 BCE was defeated by Persian king Cyrus II (a/k/a Cyrus the Great). Cyrus II's victory over Croesus led to the incineration of Sardis, the Lydian capital, and ultimately the folding of Lydia into one of the largest empires in the ancient world, the Achaemenid Empire.

The Achaemenid Empire spread across three continents, including parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Central Asia, Asia Minor, much of the Black Sea coast, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and many population centers of ancient Egypt as far as Libya. Furthermore, the Achaemenid Empire is depicted in western history as being a foe to Greek city states in the Greco-Persian Wars, for freeing the Jews from Babylonian captivity, and instituting Aramaic as its official language. The empire was formed by Cyrus II after the defeat of Media, Lydia and Babylonia, and its king created and enforced policies of religious freedom, and made a point of restoring temples and infrastructure in newly acquired cities. The Achaemenids also continued the practice of earlier dynasties by moving large populations between areas, diffusing cultures and blending faraway clans in the process to reduce territorial loyalties under its rule.

In 336 BCE, in the neighboring kingdom of Macedonia across the Aegean sea, the king died, leaving the throne to his son. The new king sought to defeat the Persians and assembled an army and a navy large enough to compete with those of the Persians. The Macedonian forces landed on the Anatolian coastline in 334 BCE, and soon thereafter had conquered and liberated the kingdoms of Lydia and Ionia. The Macedonians sought to conquer every coastal city on Anatolia and avoid ocean-based conflicts in the process. Furthermore, this allowed the Macedonian king to penetrate further east, liberating Phrygia, Cappadocia and Cilicia in the process. Soon, the Macedonians came upon the Persian army in what was known as the plains of Issus. Achaemenid king Darius III was unable to defeat the much smaller Macedonian invaders at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. Darius was compelled to flee eastward back across the Euphrates river, and, embarrassingly left his family behind to be captured by the Macedonians. Thus, by forcing the Achaemenid Empire towards the east with the Macedonian king and his army in pursuit, Anatolia was removed from Persian control. The Macedonian king who led his army is known as Alexander the Great. Alexander would go on to eventually conquer the Achaemenid empire. His generals and descendants would later control much of Persia under what is called the Seleucid empire (312 BCE - 63 BCE).

While the Seleucid empire controlled eastern Anatolia, the Thracian empire increased its influence over western Anatolia. Up until the 5th century BCE, the Thracians (located in southeastern Europe) were divided into villages and warlike tribes, and only in the middle of the 5th century, coalesced around a central authority, king Sitalces of the Odrysae. Prior to this, the Greeks colonized the Thracian Aegean coast in search of mineral wealth, wheat, and slave labor starting in about the mid 600s BCE up to the mid 400s BCE. The kingdom fell around 330 BCE as a result of the invasions of the Macedonians, led by Philip II and Alexander. When the Romans conquered Macedonia in 167 BCE, Thrace became a Roman province. As the millennium was drawing to a close, Rome sought to expand its influence over western Anatolia.

Rome, in fighting off Hannibal of Carthage during the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), sought alliance with Greece, to prevent Macedonian (allied with Hannibal in 215 BCE) conquest of western Anatolia. It was the Greek king Attalus I of Pergamon (Turkey) that sought Roman protection against the invading Macedonians. As a result of Rome's success, and their victory in a later conquest against the Seleucid king Antiochus III, Pergamon was able to take control of the Seleucid empire north of the Taurus mountains in Anatolia. Attalus III, king of Pergamon, gave his kingdom to the Romans in 133 BCE; this region was later named Asia by its Roman conquerors.

Around 90 BCE, while the Romans were occupied with affairs in Italy, one of Anatolia's kings, Mithridates VI of Pontus, thought this was the opportunity it needed to strike at Roman Asia. Roman consul Cornelius Sulla went to Asia and quickly dispatched of Mithridates' army. Roman influence in the region later grew as Bithynia was bequeathed to Rome by its king, Nicomedes IV in 74 BCE. Within that same year, Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and was defeated by another Roman consul, Lucius Licinius Lucullus. Pompey, a much more powerful Roman consul, had ascended to power around this time, and forced Mithridates back to the Bosphorus, claiming for itself Armenia. Mithridates committed suicide in 63 BCE and Rome was able to claim Pontus and Cilicia as provinces. These events were not the end of Roman conquest in Anatolia - Amyntas, known as Amyntas King of Galatia, ruled Galatia, Pisidia and Cappadocia as a sovereign kingdom. In 25 BCE, Amyntas was killed in battle and Rome was able to claim his lands, completing its conquest of Anatolia.

Anatolia was ruled as a number of Roman provinces for approximately the next 300 years, providing political stability to the region around a central Roman authority. Connections between cities were improved by new roads, agricultural output grew, and settlement in the region was promoted by the leadership in Rome. During this time, Gothic tribal influence grew on continental Europe, posing a threat to Roman influence in Macedonia, Italy and Germania. The Goths could not resist the northern Anatolian provinces, mainly because of their accessibility by sea and the mineral wealth they possessed. In 256, the Goths crossed the Black Sea, and landed in Trebizond, a northern city in the province of Pontus. Due to weak Roman defenses in the region, the Goths were able to capture additional ships and steal away some of the city's material wealth. In later attacks, the Goths were able to move into Anatolia through Bithynia and set up an operation at Chalcedon (port city in Bithynia). Gothic conquest of western Anatolia continued, and they were able to invade Ephesus on the far eastern shore of Anatolia in 263.

A crisis within the Roman empire resulting from economic, political, and military problems during the middle of the 3rd century divided the empire into three rival territories, with most of Anatolia continuing to remain under Roman authority. This series of events however had implications when Diocletian, a Roman general, came to power as emperor in 284. Diocletian initially sought to divide Roman rule between two leaders, himself, and the general Maximian, both with the title "Augustus" (emperor). By 293, however, this system was reformed - Diocletian appointed two Caesars (each ranking below an Augustus), Galerius Maximianus and Constantius Chlorus. Maximian and Diocletian each stepped down. Galerius and Constantius each became Augustus, appointing Flavius Severus and Maximinus each as Caesars, forming the first Roman tetrarchy ("rule by four").

By 324, after a number of internecine conflicts among Roman leaders, it was Constantius who rose to Augustus in Rome, governing the entire empire as Constantine I. After assuming power over the entire Roman empire, Constantine moved the capital city of the empire east from Rome to Byzantium (Turkey). Because Byzantium is on the Turkish peninsula, it is easily accessed by the Bosporus strait, connecting the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. The main significance of the Bosporus strait is economic: even a millennia before Constantine, the Byzantine government would impose tolls on Greek ships passing through the strait with grain and metals bound for Greece. It was held by Persia, Athens and Rome as a strategic part of the empire of each. By 330, Byzantium was renamed Constantinople essentially creating the fulcrum point for a divided Roman Empire, and giving rise to the designation of "Eastern" and "Western" that are still with us today.

Constantine was the first Christian emperor of Rome, and was baptized just before his death, making it official. Throughout his reign, Constantine supported efforts to promote Christianity, overseeing the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (a pilgrimage site for Christians) in Jerusalem in 326, and Old Saint Peter's Basilica, which stood in Rome until the 16th century. In Greek Orthodoxy, Constantine is considered a saint.

By 476, the western Roman empire had succumbed to various invasions by Germanic and Gothic tribes. To many Roman emperors, the empire's lands remained entirely in Roman hands, however the reality was that northern European tribes and North African invaders controlled almost all the territory considered Europe today. In contrast, the eastern empire was much stronger. Protected on 3 sides by water, the only considerable threat to the empire were the Sassenids (Persian origin) and the Huns (Mongolian origin) which were dealt with through either direct warfare or paid tribute by Roman emperors. The region was relatively urbanized, and reforms to install more bureaucrats in government by Constantine, in addition to a growing economy based partly on defense spending, strengthened the empire's hold on its territory.

In the 6th century, Justinian came to power as Roman emperor and sought to increase Rome's hold on its western territories. However, because his efforts to the west left him vulnerable in the east, he was forced into signing long-term peace treaties with his Sassanid enemies. Justinian, however, was able to push the Goths out of Italy and the Vandals out of Northern Africa extending Roman influence further west. He also created a legal code which eliminated perceived contradictions and simplified the legal system. The "Justinian Code" served as a foundation for much of European law into modern times. Justinian was also responsible for the construction of the Church of the Holy Wisdom, Hagia Sophia (Istanbul), which is famous for its large dome and serves as a museum today.

By 565 Justinian I died and his son became Emperor Justin II. The Byzantines lost land to the Sassanids and Justin II was thought to have become senile. He named one of his generals, Tiberius, as his successor. Tiberius II Constantine, continued the war with the Persians in Armenia, and in 582 was succeeded by a prominent general, Mauricius ("Maurice"). The Emperor Maurice ruled until 602, ruling over an empire constantly under attack - by the Slavs in the Balkans and the Persians in Mesopotamia and Armenia. In 602, a Roman general Phokas killed Maurice in the first bloody coup since Constantinople became capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Domestically, Phokas became popular by lowering taxes and instituting policies in favor of the Christian Church. Militarily, the empire was under attack in the Balkans and faced accusations from the Persians that Phokas was an illegitimate leader, who were able to retake some of Anatolia as well.

Heraclius, Roman proconsul in Africa, was able to overthrow and execute Phokas and claim leadership of the empire in 610. Meanwhile the Sassanid empire was advancing westward. The Sassanids were able to capture Damascus in 613, Jerusalem in 614, and attacked Egypt in 616. In 626 Constantinople was attacked, however the following year the Byzantines defeated the Persians and were able to gain all the territory they lost. Before the end of the century, the Arabs were able to conquer Carthage, Sicily and some port cities of Anatolia and the Slavs attacked Thessalonica (Greece). Due to the frequent Arab raids on Anatolia, urban centers declined and many people moved into fortresses. The Slavs expanded southward, and in 681 the new Augustus Constantine IV entered into a treaty with the king of the Bulgars, recognizing Bulgar influence over Slavic tribes in the region. Byzantine control over the Balkans was in decline.

Just after the start of the 8th century, Leo III came to power over Byzantium, having risen to great wealth and military power during the time of Anastasius II, successor to Justinian II. Leo was forced to repeatedly defend Constantinople against Arab invaders, and was able to stabilize the military through its restructuring. Furthermore, he ordered all Jews and other non-adherents to Christianity baptized, however his religiously oriented efforts were not confined to baptisms. There is a biblically-based interpretation of the 10 commandments that forbids the creation and worship of what are known as "graven images". The movement to abolish all religious images and punish those that don't follow this policy is known as Iconoclasm. Threats of Arab invasion flavored the argument both for and against Iconoclasm, and the pope and distant bishops refused to follow this policy; however Iconoclasm was not thought to be a proxy for other religious-based efforts. Rather, abolishing religious imagery and symbology was the main issue pursued by Leo to serve its own end. Iconoclasm continued throughout the 8th and 9th centuries until it was finally defeated due to protests and riots, presumably by those who worshipped smaller icons in private during this period.

From the time of Leo III (ruled 717–741) until Nikephoros I (ruled 802 to 811), various alliances were forged with neighboring powers and conflicts were fought against some of these same parties. Because of the threat posed by the Arabs, Leo allied with the Khazars and Georgians in the east. Constantine V defeated the Arabs and Bulgars in battle, and Leo IV fought against the Arabs as well. Nikephoros I continued fighting against Arabs and Bulgars until dying in battle in 811.

As the 9th century continued, the Isaur dynasty gave way to rulers of Macedonian origin, the most prominent being Basil I. Basil was born in Thrace in 812, and served under Emperor Michael III (also known as Michael the Drunkard). Basil rose through the ranks to become Michael's companion, and in 866 was named co-emperor. In 867, Basil murdered Michael and took the throne for himself. Basil deposed the archbishop of Constantinople, as a result of conflict between the emperor and the pope, however he was later reinstated. Basil's most significant domestic achievement is his reform of the legal system, a new set of laws known as the "Basilica". Militarily, Basil was successful in fighting the Paulicians (religious sect in eastern Anatolia) and Dalmatia (Croatia) in the west. He was also able to successfully fortify eastern Byzantium against the Arabs, but lost Sicily to Arab forces. Basil appointed his three eldest sons as co-emperors, however his oldest son died in 879, crushing the emotions of the powerful emperor.

When Basil died in 886, the throne was passed to his son Leo VI. Power over the empire changed hands quickly and frequently during the 10th century - Leo VI died in 912, passing the throne to his brother, Alexander who died 13 months later. Leo VI's son, Constantine VII, ruled from 913 until he was deposed in 920 by the son of an Imperial Guardsmen, returning to power in 944. Constantine's son Romanos II came to power and ruled for 4 years, followed by his son Basil II who was 5 at the time. Although Basil II was deposed, he returned to power, holding the throne from 976 to 1025. Basil II allied with Prince Vladimir I of Kiev, which served to both stabilize the northern Byzantine empire and spread Christianity to Vladimir's empire, Kievan Rus'. Basil reclaimed Syria for the empire, but couldn't retake Jerusalem. Basil was also successful against the Bulgarians in Thrace in 1014.

Later in the 11th century, disputes between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic churches would reach a crisis point. Not only were the churches using different languages (eastern Greek, and western Latin), but insertion of the words "and the son" into the following phrase in the Nicene Creed, highlighted differences as well:

Et in Spiritum Sanctum, Dominum, et vivificantem: qui ex Patre Filioque procedit.
(And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.)

The phrase is known as the "filioque", Latin for "and (from) the Son" and it emphasizes that Jesus is equal with God. In the Eastern Church, the Father is seen as the single being which gave rise to the other two beings, which is why the filioque is omitted, while in Western Christianity, using the phrase emphasizes that Jesus, the Son, is equal with God.

In July 1054, papal representatives placed a "bull of excommunication" on the altar of the Hagia Sophia, the basilica in Constantinople. This was the culminating event that traced roots of division between the eastern and western churches back several centuries, touching off what is known as the Great Schism or the East-West Schism.

Before the 9th century, much farther to the east in the Aral and Caspian sea regions, nomadic peoples migrated towards Persia, adopting Islam and eventually invading and defeating the Persian empire in the 11th century. This emerging power eventually took Syria, Palestine, Iraq, and Iran. This expanding empire, who in 1071 defeated the Byzantine army at Manzikert (Anatolia), were known as the Seljuk Turks, and their influence in the region grew for another 15 years, setting the stage for the religiously oriented conflicts known as the Crusades.

To Be Continued...